Publications | September 2026
Abstract: Background: Children who both bully other children and are victims of bullies (BVs) are at greater risk for externalizing and internalizing problems, poor academic outcomes, and increased involvement in criminal behavior later in life. Yet the early emergence, over-time stability, and risk and protective factors for being BVs are largely unknown.
Methods: We analyzed data from 7,326 children in third through fifth grade participating in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011 (ECLS-K: 2011), a nationally representative and multiyear longitudinal cohort. We first descriptively identified children exhibiting high levels of both bullying perpetration and victimization. We examined BV prevalence and over-time stability. We then used survey-weighted logistic regression models to identify risk and protective factors for BV, including repeatedly across time in analyses adjusting for prior perpetration and victimization.
Results: Between 9% and 20% of children were BVs across 3rd–5th grade. About 40% of BVs in one grade were BVs in the next grade. BVs concurrently displayed elevated socioemotional problems, executive dysfunction, strained student–teacher relationships, and lower academic achievement. Supplemental latent transition analyses further supported BV stability across elementary school. Risk factors for BV status included being Black, male, and from less-resourced families. Children experiencing externalizing problems (aORs = 1.28–1.41) were more likely to be BVs in adjusted analyses. Children with greater self-control were less likely (aORs = 0.80–0.83). Greater externalizing problems (aOR = 1.57) and self-control (aOR = 0.65) were also associated with repeated BV status.
Conclusions: Some children are both bullies and victims, including repeatedly across elementary school. Modifiable risk factors for experiencing BV include prior bullying perpetration, externalizing problem behaviors, self-control difficulties, and socioeconomic disadvantages.
Published: September 17, 2026
Publication: The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
CLI Author: Yoonkyung Oh, PhD
Citation: Gao, X., Thibault, S.A., Yang, Q., Hu, E.H., Oh, Y. and Morgan, P.L. (2026), Bully-victim prevalence, over-time stability, and risk and protective factors during elementary school. J Child Psychol Psychiatr. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70235